Figure of Speech

A mode of expression in which words are used out of their literal meaning or out of their ordinary use in order to add beauty or emotional intensity or to transfer the poet’s sense impressions by comparing or identifying one thing with another that has a meaning familiar to the reader. Some important figures of speech are: simile, metaphor, personification, hyperbole and symbol.

SIMILE: A figure of speech in which an explicit comparison is made between two essentially unlike things, usually using like, as or than, as in Burns’, “O, my luve’s like A Red, Red Rose” or Shelley’s “As still as a brooding dove,” in The Cloud.

METAPHOR: A figure of speech in which a word or phrase literally denoting one object or idea is applied to another, thereby suggesting a likeness or analogy between them, as     The Leaves of Life keep falling one by one.                    I fall upon the thorns of life! I bleed!               

   Put on their winter robe of purest white.                

PERSONIFICATION : A type of metaphor in which distinctive human characteristics, e.g., honesty, emotion, volition, etc., are attributed to an animal, object or idea, as “The haughty lion surveyed his realm” or “My car was happy to be washed” or “‘Fate frowned on his endeavors.” Personification is commonly used in allegory. 

SYMBOL: An image transferred by something that stands for or represents something else, like flag for country, or autumn for maturity. Symbols can transfer the ideas embodied in the image without stating them, as in Robert Frost’s Acquainted With the Night, in which night is symbolic of death or depression, or Sara Teasdale’s The Long Hill, in which the climb up the hill symbolizes life and the brambles are symbolic of life’s adversities. 

HYPERBOLE (hi-PER-buh-lee) : A bold, deliberate overstatement, e.g., “I’d give my right arm for a piece of pizza.” Not intended to be taken literally, it is used as a means of emphasizing the truth of a statement. Sidelight: A type of hyperbole in which the exaggeration magnified so greatly that it refers to an impossibility is called an adynaton. 

LITOTES (LIH-tuh-teez, pl. LIH-toh-teez) : A type of meiosis (understatement) in which an affirmative is expressed by the negative of the contrary, as in “not unhappy” or “a poet of no small stature.” 

IMAGERY, IMAGE: The elements in a literary work used to evoke mental images, not only of the visual sense, but of sensation and emotion as well. While most commonly used in reference to figurative language, imagery is a variable term which can apply to any and all components of a poem that evoke sensory experience, whether figurative or literal, and also applies to the concrete things so imaged. 

FIGURE OF SOUND : Sometimes called sound devices, these include onomatopoeia, alliteration, assonance, consonance, euphony, resonance, and others. Not all of these are considered figures of speech, exactly, but they’re included here because they’re part of what you’ll find it you look closely at the language and word choice of may poem. They work hand-in-hand with rhythm and all types of rhyme. 

ALLITERATION: Also called head rhyme or initial rhyme, the repetition of the initial sounds (usually consonants) of stressed syllables in neighboring words or at short intervals within a line or passage, usually at word beginnings, as in “wild and woolly” or the line from Shelley’s The Cloud: I bear light shade for the leaves when laid Sidelight: Alliteration has a gratifying effect on the sound, gives a reinforcement to stresses, and can also serve as a subtle connection or emphasis of key words in the line, but alliterated words should not “call attention” to themselves by strained usage. 

 ASSONANCE : The relatively close juxtaposition of the same or similar vowel sounds, but with different end consonants in a line or passage, thus a vowel rhyme, as in the words, date and fade.

ONOMATOPOEIA (ahn-uh-mah-tuh-PEE-uh): Strictly speaking, the formation or use of words which imitate sounds, like whispering, clang and sizzle, but the term is generally expanded to refer to any word whose sound is suggestive of its meaning. Sidelight: Because sound is an important part of poetry, the use of onomatopoeia is another subtle weapon in the poet’s arsenal for the transfer of sense impressions through imagery, as in Keats’ “The murmurous haunt of flies on summer eves,” in Ode to a Nightingale.. Sidelight: Though impossible to prove, some philologists (linguistic scientists) believe that all language originated through the onomatopoeic formation of words.

CACOPHONY (cack-AH-fuh-nee or cack-AW-fuh-nee) : Discordant sounds in the jarring juxtaposition of harsh letters or syllables, sometimes inadvertent, but often deliberately used in poetry for effect, as in the lines from Whitman’s The Dalliance of Eagles:

      The clinching interlocking claws, a living, fierce, gyrating wheel,
      Four beating wings, two beaks, a swirling mass tight grappling,
      In tumbling turning clustering loops, straight downward falling,

Sidelight: Sound devices are important to poetic effects; to create sounds appropriate to the content, the poet may sometimes prefer to achieve a cacophonous effect instead of the more commonly sought-for euphony. The use of words with the consonants b, k and p, for example, produce harsher sounds than the soft f and v or the liquid l, m and n.

CAESURA (siz-YUR-uh): A rhythmic break or pause in the flow of sound which is commonly introduced in about the middle of a line of verse, but may be varied for different effects. Usually placed between syllables rhythmically connected in order to aid the recital as well as to convey the meaning more clearly, it is a pause dictated by the sense of the content or by natural speech patterns, rather than by metrics. It may coincide with conventional punctuation marks, but not necessarily. A caesura within a line is indicated in scanning by the symbol (||), as in the first line of Emily Dickinson’s, I’m Nobody! Who Are You?

I’m no | body! || Who are | you?

Sidelight: As a grammatical, rhythmic, and dramatic device, as well as an effective means of avoiding monotony, the caesura is a powerful weapon in the skilled poet’s arsenal. Sidelight: Since caesura and pause are often used interchangeably, it is better to use metrical pause for the type of “rest” which compensates for the omission of a syllable.

http://www.angelfire.com/ct2/evenski/poetry/figuresofspeech.html

Pronouns

A pronoun can replace a noun or another pronoun. You use pronouns like “he,” “which,” “none,” and “you” to make your sentences less cumbersome and less repetitive.

Grammarians classify pronouns into several types, including the personal pronoun, the demonstrative pronoun, the interrogative pronoun, the indefinite pronoun, the relative pronoun, the reflexive pronoun, and the intensive pronoun.

Personal Pronouns

A personal pronoun refers to a specific person or thing and changes its form to indicate person, number, gender, and case.

Subjective Personal Pronouns

A subjective personal pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as the subject of the sentence. The subjective personal pronouns are “I,” “you,” “she,” “he,” “it,” “we,” “you,” “they.”

In the following sentences, each of the highlighted words is a subjective personal pronoun and acts as the subject of the sentence:

I was glad to find the bus pass in the bottom of the green knapsack.

You are surely the strangest child I have ever met.

He stole the selkie’s skin and forced her to live with him.

When she was a young woman, she earned her living as a coal miner.

After many years, they returned to their homeland.

We will meet at the library at 3:30 p.m.

It is on the counter.

Are you the delegates from Malagawatch?

Objective Personal Pronouns

An objective personal pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as an object of a verb, compound verb, preposition, or infinitive phrase. The objective personal pronouns are: “me,” “you,” “her,” “him,” “it,” “us,” “you,” and “them.”

In the following sentences, each of the highlighted words is an objective personal pronoun:

Seamus stole the selkie’s skin and forced her to live with him.

The objective personal pronoun “her” is the direct object of the verb “forced” and the objective personal pronoun “him” is the object of the preposition “with.”

After reading the pamphlet, Judy threw it into the garbage can.

The pronoun “it” is the direct object of the verb “threw.”

The agitated assistant stood up and faced the angry delegates and said, “Our leader will address you in five minutes.”

In this sentence, the pronoun “you” is the direct object of the verb “address.”

Deborah and Roberta will meet us at the newest café in the market.

Here the objective personal pronoun “us” is the direct object of the compound verb “will meet.”

Give the list to me.

Here the objective personal pronoun “me” is the object of the preposition “to.”

I’m not sure that my contact will talk to you.

Similarly in this example, the objective personal pronoun “you” is the object of the preposition “to.”

Christopher was surprised to see her at the drag races.

Here the objective personal pronoun “her” is the object of the infinitive phrase “to see.”

Possessive Personal Pronouns

A possessive pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as a marker of possession and defines who owns a particular object or person. The possessive personal pronouns are “mine,” “yours,” “hers,” “his,” “its,” “ours,” and “theirs.” Note that possessive personal pronouns are very similar to possessive adjectives like “my,” “her,” and “their.”

In each of the following sentences, the highlighted word is a possessive personal pronoun:

The smallest gift is mine.

Here the possessive pronoun “mine” functions as a subject complement.

This is yours.

Here too the possessive pronoun “yours” functions as a subject complement.

His is on the kitchen counter.

In this example, the possessive pronoun “his” acts as the subject of the sentence.

Theirs will be delivered tomorrow.

In this sentence, the possessive pronoun “theirs” is the subject of the sentence.

Ours is the green one on the corner.

Here too the possessive pronoun “ours” function as the subject of the sentence.

Demonstrative Pronouns

A demonstrative pronoun points to and identifies a noun or a pronoun. “This” and “these” refer to things that are nearby either in space or in time, while “that” and “those” refer to things that are farther away in space or time.

The demonstrative pronouns are “this,” “that,” “these,” and “those.” “This” and “that” are used to refer to singular nouns or noun phrases and “these” and “those” are used to refer to plural nouns and noun phrases. Note that the demonstrative pronouns are identical to demonstrative adjectives, though, obviously, you use them differently. It is also important to note that “that” can also be used as a relative pronoun.

In the following sentences, each of the highlighted words is a demonstrative pronoun:

This must not continue.

Here “this” is used as the subject of the compound verb “must not continue.”

This is puny; that is the tree I want.

In this example “this” is used as subject and refers to something close to the speaker. The demonstrative pronoun “that” is also a subject but refers to something farther away from the speaker.

Three customers wanted these.

Here “these” is the direct object of the verb “wanted.”

Interrogative Pronouns

An interrogative pronoun is used to ask questions. The interrogative pronouns are “who,” “whom,” “which,” “what” and the compounds formed with the suffix “ever” (“whoever,” “whomever,” “whichever,” and “whatever”). Note that either “which” or “what” can also be used as an interrogative adjective, and that “who,” “whom,” or “which” can also be used as a relative pronoun.

You will find “who,” “whom,” and occasionally “which” used to refer to people, and “which” and “what” used to refer to things and to animals.

“Who” acts as the subject of a verb, while “whom” acts as the object of a verb, preposition, or a verbal.

The highlighted word in each of the following sentences is an interrogative pronoun:

Which wants to see the dentist first?

“Which” is the subject of the sentence.

Who wrote the novel Rockbound?

Similarly “who” is the subject of the sentence.

Whom do you think we should invite?

In this sentence, “whom” is the object of the verb “invite.”

To whom do you wish to speak?

Here the interrogative pronoun “whom ” is the object of the preposition “to.”

Who will meet the delegates at the train station?

In this sentence, the interrogative pronoun “who” is the subject of the compound verb “will meet.”

To whom did you give the paper?

In this example the interrogative pronoun “whom” is the object of the preposition “to.”

What did she say?

Here the interrogative pronoun “what” is the direct object of the verb “say.”

Relative Pronouns

You can use a relative pronoun is used to link one phrase or clause to another phrase or clause. The relative pronouns are “who,” “whom,” “that,” and “which.” The compounds “whoever,” “whomever,” and “whichever” are also relative pronouns.

You can use the relative pronouns “who” and “whoever” to refer to the subject of a clause or sentence, and “whom” and “whomever” to refer to the objects of a verb, a verbal or a preposition.

In each of the following sentences, the highlighted word is a relative pronoun.

You may invite whomever you like to the party.

The relative pronoun “whomever” is the direct object of the compound verb “may invite.”

The candidate who wins the greatest popular vote is not always elected.

In this sentence, the relative pronoun is the subject of the verb “wins” and introduces the subordinate clause “who wins the greatest popular vote.” This subordinate clause acts as an adjective modifying “candidate.”

In a time of crisis, the manager asks the workers whom she believes to be the most efficient to arrive an hour earlier than usual.

In this sentence “whom” is the direct object of the verb “believes” and introduces the subordinate clause “whom she believes to be the most efficient”. This subordinate clause modifies the noun “workers.”

Whoever broke the window will have to replace it.

Here “whoever” functions as the subject of the verb “broke.”

The crate which was left in the corridor has now been moved into the storage closet.

In this example “which” acts as the subject of the compound verb “was left” and introduces the subordinate clause “which was left in the corridor.” The subordinate clause acts as an adjective modifying the noun “crate.”

I will read whichever manuscript arrives first.

Here “whichever” modifies the noun “manuscript” and introduces the subordinate clause “whichever manuscript arrives first.” The subordinate clause functions as the direct object of the compound verb “will read.”

Indefinite Pronouns

An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun referring to an identifiable but not specified person or thing. An indefinite pronoun conveys the idea of all, any, none, or some.

The most common indefinite pronouns are “all,” “another,” “any,” “anybody,” “anyone,” “anything,” “each,” “everybody,” “everyone,” “everything,” “few,” “many,” “nobody,” “none,” “one,” “several,” “some,” “somebody,” and “someone.” Note that some indefinite pronouns can also be used as indefinite adjectives.

The highlighted words in the following sentences are indefinite pronouns:

Many were invited to the lunch but only twelve showed up.

Here “many” acts as the subject of the compound verb “were invited.”

The office had been searched and everything was thrown onto the floor.

In this example, “everything” acts as a subject of the compound verb “was thrown.”

We donated everything we found in the attic to the woman’s shelter garage sale.

In this sentence, “everything” is the direct object of theverb “donated.”

Although they looked everywhere for extra copies of the magazine, they found none.

Here too the indefinite pronoun functions as a direct object: “none” is the direct object of “found.”

Make sure you give everyone a copy of the amended bylaws.

In this example, “everyone” is the indirect object of the verb “give” — the direct object is the noun phrase “a copy of the amended bylaws.”

Give a registration package to each.

Here “each” is the object of the preposition “to.”

Reflexive Pronouns

You can use a reflexive pronoun to refer back to the subject of the clause or sentence.

The reflexive pronouns are “myself,” “yourself,” “herself,” “himself,” “itself,” “ourselves,” “yourselves,” and “themselves.” Note each of these can also act as an intensive pronoun.

Each of the highlighted words in the following sentences is a reflexive pronoun:

Diabetics give themselves insulin shots several times a day.

The Dean often does the photocopying herself so that the secretaries can do more important work.

After the party, I asked myself why I had faxed invitations to everyone in my office building.

Richard usually remembered to send a copy of his e-mail to himself.

Although the landlord promised to paint the apartment, we ended up doing it ourselves.

Intensive Pronouns

An intensive pronoun is a pronoun used to emphasise its antecedent. Intensive pronouns are identical in form to reflexive pronouns.

The highlighted words in the following sentences are intensive pronouns:

I myself believe that aliens should abduct my sister.

The Prime Minister himself said that he would lower taxes.

They themselves promised to come to the party even though they had a final exam at the same time.

http://www.google.com

Nouns

Noun is a word used to name a person, animal, place, thing, and abstract ideas.

  Classes of Nouns

Common Noun is a noun referring to a person, place, or thing in a general sense— usually you should write it with a capital letter only when it begins a sentence.

  Proper Noun is always starts with capital letter, since the noun represents the name of a specific person, place, thing or idea.

Proper Nouns	Common Nouns
Agapito Flores	inventor
Manila	city
Harry Potter	book
March	month

 

Abstract Noun – name ideas, qualities, or feelings that cannot be seen or touched.

• When Patrick dived into the violent water to rescue a drowning puppy, his bravery amazed the crowd of fishermen standing on the dock.

  Concrete Noun is a noun which names anything (or anyone) that can be perceived through the physical senses:  touch, sight, taste, hearing, or smell.

• Karl cuddled the wet puppy under his warm jacket.

 Compound Nouns are nouns that are made up of two or more words.

• book + mark = bookmark        (one word)
• great-grandmother                    (hyphenated)
• maid of honor                           (more than 1 word)

 Collective Noun is a noun naming a group of things, animals, or persons.  It is important to remember that a collective noun usually takes a singular verb.

Collective Nouns
colony	audience	class	swarm
flock	club	collection	orchestra
family	group	crowd	platoon
committee	troop	jury	bunch

 

Count Noun is a noun with both a singular and a plural form, and it names anything (or anyone) that can be counted.

• You may need an umbrella.

 Mass Noun is a noun which does not have a plural form, and which refers to something that could (or would) not usually count.

• Joseph Priestly discovered oxygen.

 Forms of Nouns

 Singular Nouns – refers to one object.

• dog, chair, table, flower, apple

 Plural Nouns – refers to two or more objects.

• dogs, chairs, tables, flowers, apples

 Gender

 Masculine – refers to persons or animals of male sex.

• man, father, uncle, lad, king, groom, actor, gander

Feminine – refers to person or animals of female sex.

• woman, mother, auntie, lass, queen, bride, actress, goose

Neuter – refers to objects with no sex.

• tree, table, watch, car, slipper

Common – refers to nouns that are either male of female.

• cousin, teenager, doctor, cook, parent, friend, colleague

 Uses of a Noun

1. Subject of the Sentence – The subject is the person, place, thing, or idea that the sentence is about.
2. Predicate Noun – A predicate noun comes after the verb to be or a linking verb that replaces or means the same thing as the subject of the sentence.
   1. Appositive – An appositive is a word or phrase that comes after another word.  It explains, identifies, or gives information about that word.  The appositive is set off from the sentence by one or two commas.
   2. Direct Object of a verb – The direct object is the person, place, thing, or idea, that receives the action of the verb.

• The book was heavy.

• My brother is the clown.

• Our teacher, Mr. Ford, taught us English.

• Jack slammed the door.

1. Indirect Object of a verb – The indirect object receives the action of the verb indirectly.
2. Object of the Preposition – A preposition is a word that shows location, movement, or direction.  Common ones are in, on, with, under for, and by.  A preposition is always followed by a noun or pronoun that is called the object of the preposition.  Together, they form a prepositional phrase.
3. Object Complement – An object complement is a word that completes the meaning of a direct object.  It is used when the direct object would not make complete sense by itself.
4. To show Possession – A possessive noun tells who or what owns something.

• Our teacher gave us a gift.

• over the house
• under the highway

• I named my cat Garfield.

• Hawaii’s volcanoes are still active.

 

www.google.com

Using Conjunctions Correctly

The word conjunction comes from the Latin word conjunctus, meaning, “to join.” Conjunctions are word s which join words, phrases, or clauses. They should be used with care.

There are two general classes of conjunctions: coordinating and subordinating conjunctions.

A. Coordinating Conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions connect words, phrases, and clauses of equal rank, they do not join a principal element to a subordinate element.

The principal coordinating conjunctions are and, but, or and so.

1. The And type

And is used to add something to what has already been said. It should be used only when the second idea is along the same line of thought as the first idea.

2. The But type

But adds something contraty to or different from what has been said. When we use and, the second part of the sentence expresses an idea which we accept to follow; when we use but, the second part of the sentence expresses an idea which is in contrast to the first.

3. The Or type

Or implies a choice. It connects ideas of equal value, giving one a chance to choose either idea.

4. The So type

The conjunction so is used when the second part is a consequence of the first part. The so type differs from the and type, which implies the same line of thought and from the but type, which implies a contrast. So implies that the second part follows as a result of the first part.

 

B. Subordinating Conjunctions

Subordinating conjunctions are used to introduce subordinate clauses. They convey the thought relationship between ideas in a sentence.

The principal subordinte conjunctions are what, that/so that, because, how, though/although, if/ as if, unless, where and whether.

The following are additional tips on using subordinate conjunctions correctly:

1. Like is a preposition, not a conjunction.

2. Only is an adverb and a conjunction.

3. As if and as though are both conjunctions and introduce clauses of unreal comparison. They are generally followed by the subjunctive.

4. Use as if or like; do not say like as if.

5. Use because, not because that.

6. Use so that to introduce a clause denoting purpose. Do not use so as for the same purpose.

7. Use that and not because when the reason or the cause is in object position.

8. Use if to denote simple conditions; use whether with or.

9. Use if for positive statements; use unless for negative statements.

Afro-Asian Literarure

Sentence Unity And Coherence

A. Observing Unity in Your Sentences

All sentences mean something; a sentence expresses an idea. The object of writing is to communicate thoughts as simply, as clearly, and as effectively as possible. Clear thinking produces clear writing.

1. Do not say too much in a sentence. A sentence which has too many ideas is said to be “overloaded” or is a “struggling sentence.”

2. Do not say too little in a sentence.

3. Do not put in a sentence ideas which have little or no relation to each other.

4. Do not use and too often in a sentence.

5. Keep the tense of the verb in each sentence uniform.

6. Keep the voice of the verbs in each sentence uniform.

 

B. Observing Coherence in Your Sentences

Structure in a sentence refers to word order and grammatical relationships between words in a sentence. The principle of unity concerns the relation of the thought of a sentence and its expression. It requires that a sentence express this one thing adequately. Good sentences are the result of much thought, planning, and actual practice in writing.

The principle of unity demands that only related ideas be put together in a sentence. The principle of coherence demands that the relation of these elements be made clear. We have learned that in English, words should be placed in a certain order to make sense. The basic pattern for an English sentence is the S-TV-O pattern.

Word order is very important in writing coherence sentences.

1. Place word, phrase, and clause modifiers as near as possible to the word modified.

a. Adjective modifier

b. Adverb modirier

c. Phrase modifier

d. Clause modifier

2. Avoid dangling modifiers. A dangling modifier is placed cllose to a word it does not modify and gives the impression that it refers to that word in the sentence. This is why it dangles.

3. Ideas which are parallel in meaning should be given parallel cunstruction. Ideas which have equal value should follow the same pattern.

Parallelism should be observed noy only among words but also among phrases and clauses. Parallelism helps make a sentence effective and clear.

4. As a general rule, words which normally belong together should not be separated. Separating them weakens the sentence. For clarity, the S-IV pattern should be followed: that is, the verb comes after the subject or the S-TV-O pattern should be followed; that is, the object comes after the verb.

Afro-Asian Literature

Japanese Poetry

 Poetry has been a favorite with the Japanese. The oldest collection of poetry-Manyo Shu(Collection of myriad leaves)-was compiled in 800 A.D.. The collection titled One Hundred Persons was compiled much later.

The writng of poetry was a required ability among the aristocratic classes. Skill in the art led to promotion in court. Poetic ability was also necessary for a loveer because a letter to his loved one must be exquisitely written in poetry. This was carefully folded and tied with a spray of flowers before it was sent.

Japanese poems have a certain suggestive quality with the poet seemingly addressing the reader. “your heart must complete the poems.” Poems are written on various subjects-the falling of the blossoms, the reddening of leaves in the autumn, the glory of the imperial family, the death of a wife or child, or the pleasures of drink. The shortest form of Japanese poetry-but the most popular- is the haiku, a seventeen-syllable poem in three lines of five, seven, five syllables. Poetry is so intimately bound up with Japanese life that the Japanese set aside one day each year as Haiku Day.

With the advent of the twentieth century, Western ideas and customs greatly influenced the Japanese. European influences in literature have become manifest in translations and imitations, especially in fiction.

Afro-Asian Literature

Japanese Drama

The drama is a favorite form of amusement. The popular plays are generally about history and tradition, or they deal with the lives and adventures of gods and heroes. The scene is always laid in Japan. The plays are very long. The perfoormance begins in the morning and can last all day. The spectators bring thair food with them.

Three types of drama have been developed in Japan: the Noh play, the Joruri or puppet play, and the Kabuki play.

The Noh play is the national theater of Japan. Tourists fron all over the world go to Japan to witness a Noh play. In the past it was a play reserved for the nobility, and the audience dressed themeselves in ceremonial robes. Legend says that the Noh has its origin in the dance and that this dance was invented by the gods.

The history runs thus: The all-important Sun Goddess hid herself in the rock cave of heaven, causing universal darkness. So the other gods invented a dance which one of them performed of an inverted tub, and the Sun Goddess came out to see what was the hollow noise made by the dancer’s feet. The sound produced by the dancer stamping on the wooden floor is still an important part of the play.

The puppet play for doll threated is very popular. The puppets are beautifully made and lifelike in size. The strings are expertly manipulated and the dialogue realistically interpreted.

The third type of play is the Kabuki, the play for the masses. It is less intellectual, more realistic, even sensational.

Afro-Asian Literature

Introction to Japanese Literature

 Japanese literature is one of the major Oriental literatures. It is less voluminous than Chinese literature but comparable to Arabic, Persian, and Indian literatures. It covers the period from the fifth century A.D. to the present.

Poems and odes to the gods were composed in the early Japanese language before the art pf writing was known in Japan. Only fragments of this literature have survived but these are thought to have been extensive. During the first centuries of writing in Japan, the spoken language and written language were identical. But withthe study of Chinese literature, the composition of literary works began to be written almost exclusively in Chinese. However there soon grew differences between coloquial Japanese and the literary idioms. The addition of Chinese words inyo the Japanese language increased rapidly. In Japanese writing at present, the Chinese characters occupy the most important places. But all those words which express the wants, feelings, and concerns of everyday life-all that lies deepest in the human heart-for the most part are expressed in native words. 

The written language, therefore, consists mainly of characters borrowed from the Chinese, each character representing an idea. To read and write, the student must learn several thousand separate characters. But there now exists in Japan a basic alphabet of only forty-seven characters- the Katakana.

Learning in Japan was continued to the court circles before 1200. From 1400 to 1500 the military came into power, and education was denied everyone except the priests. In 1600, the modern period of generel culture began. The people respond enthusiastically to the policy of general education. Reading became a very popular pastime. It was a common sight in Japan to see circulating libraries carried from house to house on the backs of men.

It is a remarkable fact, without parallel in the history of literature, that a large proportion of the literary works in Japan was written by women. Theis genius is said to have made Japanese a literary language. The cultivation of the native tongue was left to the ladies of the court and these ladies performed this task nobly.

The earliest Japanese literary work is the Kojiki (Records of ancient matters). It treats of the creation of the world, the gods and goddesses of the mythological period, and facts about the earliest history of Japan. The next important creative work was the Nihongi (Chronicles Of Japan). It tells of the early history of Japan in poetry and shows the profound influence of the Chinese. These two books are the oldest in the language. The Japanese are intensely proud of their history and take great care in writing and preserving records. Memorial stones are among the striking sights along the highways in every town and village has its historical records. Even family records are carefuly copied from one generation to the next. In cities there are professional storytellers who earn theis livelihood by narrating legendary and historical tales.

Afro-Asian Literature

Introduction to Indian Literature

 As early as 300 A.D., India had already produced a considerable body of literature written in several Indian tongues derived from a common ancestral language-Sanskrit. The earliest known literature of India is a collection of traditions handad down by word of mouth. These traditions are known as the Vedas. These contain hymns addressed to the Indian gods, who are very numerous. They also contain stories about these gods. The literature of India is often called Sanskrit literature. The word Sanskrit means cultivated or perfected. Hindu literature reveals the inner and outer life of a remarkable people. It extends from a remote past to the present. India was the center of an ancient civilization which spread east and south. This civilization affected the language and culture of many countries in both Europe and Asia. India also founded colonies in ancient Persia, Greece, and Rome, as well as in Spain, England and France. These countries belong to the Indo-European race. They once had their homes in Cenral Asia and spoke the same language. Even now the various languages spoken in these Indo-European countries are only different forms of the original language. This is especially true of words reffering to family life like father, mother, daughter, and sister. The word daughter comes from the Sanskrit word signifying to draw milk. It preserves the memory of the time when the daughter was the little milkmaid in the primitive Indo-European household. The Indians have a civilization older than that of the ancient Greeks and Romans. While savages roamed the dense forest of England, France, Italy, and Germany, The Indians already had a highly developed civilization and were producing masterpieces in the arts. Indian philosophy and religion greatly influenced both the East and the West. Long before Christ lived, the Indians were already teaching the brotherhood of all people and the fatherhood of God. Indian culture has interesting and distinctive qualities. Indian literature, alreadt fully developed over 3,000 years ago is rich in spiritual and imaginative values. Indian culture also had a scientifis bent. India gave the world trigonometry, the first grammar books, the first study of phonetics(the study of speech and sounds), and the game of chess.

Afro-Asian Literature

Characteristics of Indian Literature

 

The first characteristic we notice about Indian literature is that it is based on oiety, a deeply religious spirit. The Indians believed that a knowledge of God and a strong belief in Hinduism is necessary to save mankind. Their earliest poems, the Vedas, are the Bible of the Indians.

The second characteristic we notice about Indian literature is that the Indian literary masterpieces written in the form of epics, correspond to great epochs in the history of India. The Ramayana an the Mahabharata are the most importatant epics of India; the latter is the longest found in the world literature. The Indians believe in reincarnation, meaning that the soul of a person after death returns to the earth in the body of another person, animal or even a plant. Consequently, they believe in kindness to other people and to animals. They also abstain from destroying plants because in that plant might be reincarnated one’s dead elative.

Their gods are believed to be reincarnated into human beings or even animals. Thus the Ramayana is about the reincarnation of the creator god Vishnu in the person of Rama, who is a hero of the epic. The Mahabharata deals with another reincarnation of Vishnu in the person of Krishna. These reincarnations of Vishnu are called avatars or descending from the god.Vishnu is supposed to have ten avatars. Nine avatars have already taken place, and the tenth is yet to come. When this last avater takes place, Vishnu will descend from heaven to destroy the present world and restore peace and purity.

Tha Mahabharata is considered the greatest epic of India. It tells the story of a civil war that might have taken place in the early years of the Aryan occupation of India. Obviously, the products of many centuries and many hands, it is a long poem, almost as long as the combined epics of all Europe.

The Mahabharata tells of two rival bands of brothers, descentants of a common grandfather King Panda. When he died, he left his five sons in the care of his brother who was to be regent while his sons were still minors. The regent himself had many sons, and they coveted the kingdom for themselves. The result was a period of intrigues and battles which resulted in the exile of the five brothers.

Tha Ramayana recounts the adventures of Rama and his wife Sita. Legend has it that Sita was born of a furrow, the child of Mother Earth. Sita is regarded by the woman of India as the perfect sumbol of wifely devotion and self-sacrifice for the beloved.

Interesting enough, the Maranaw epic Darangan has many elemants and episodes derived from the Mahabharata and Ramayana.

Afro-Asian Literature